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The viewpoint expressed here is primarily Hispanic and dates from the first quarter of the nineteenth century. The data, unless indicated otherwise, reflects the definitions of O'Scanlan (1831). O'Scanlan quotes extensively from Garcia Palacio but he also uses many other earlier sources as well as his own knowledge as a frigate captain in the early part of the nineteenth century.

Those interested in sixteenth century Hispanic terminology should see Garcia Palacio (1988). There are several sixteenth century Spanish works on navigation that might be of interest for those seeking to understand how ships were piloted in those years. Two of the most accessible are Garcia Palacio (1988) and Cortés Albácar (1990). Cortés Albácar was translated into English and published in that language in the sixteenth century.

The geography, again unless noted otherwise, is that of the pilot guide, or derrotero, of 1820 (Anonymous 1820). Often anonymous, or various, the more comprehensive ones are often composed of route descriptions added to by different authors over a period of many decades. The derroteros of 1575 and 1767 have also been helpful. A short list of some of the more comprehensive derroteros follows:

Date Routes Source

1575 Americas and Spain Escalante de Mendoza (1985)

1578 Florida, Caribbean, Veracruz Pedro Mendieta (BNM 4541)

1583 Americas Add 28.189

1592 Americas BUS 291

1747 Caribbean BUL 83/25

1764 Caribbean BUL 83/21

1767 Americas BPR 2597

1820 Americas Anonymous (1820)

Except as noted otherwise, cannon terminology, bores and weights come from the AGI Indiferente General manuscripts in legajos 1108 and 1109 dating from the year 1595.

The emphasis has been to reflect contemporary usage. The aim is always to provide a translating aid for those who need to read, and understand, the old descriptions of ships lost and treasure sunk in those centuries when Spain had an empire on the American mainland.

The emphasis has been to reflect contemporary usage. The aim is always to provide a translating aid for those who need to read, and understand, the old descriptions of ships lost and treasure sunk in those centuries when Spain had an empire on the American mainland.

______________________________________________________

A Dios Misericordia. "[to be waterlogged, to be submerged; literally, at God's mercy] is when a ship, because of a storm, or other, or other misfortune, is full of water," (Garcia Palacio 1988:159).

Abrojo. See Bajo.

Abrojos or bajos de Babuca. "This is a bank, of the West Indies, having several rocks or small islands on it, to the east of Turk's Island. It is in Latitude 21 deg. 5 min. N. and Longitude 69 deg. 46 min. W. between which and Turk's Island is a channel of three leagues in width, and deep enough for any ship," (Malham 1801:46). "This bajo of Abrojos is where was lost the Almiranta of the fleet of Don Roque Centoso... and from this Almiranta was where the English from Jamaica searched for treasure and loading the treasure, upon returning to Jamaica in a pingue, lost their ship in the bajo of Serranilla," (Anonymous and various 1767: f. 128).

Aguja, Punta de. South of Paita and on the southern edge of Sechura bay in northern Peru. "Where there is a hull of a frigate that sunk called Guadalupe," (Anonymous and Various 1767).

Ais, Palmar de. "From Cape Canaveral the shore stretches nearly south, for seven leagues, to opposite the mouth of St. Sebastian River; then S.E. by S eight leagues to the hilly knowls, called the Tortolas, off which are some heads of rocks under water, 8 leagues and half together, 7 of which continue in a S.E. by S. course, the other one and half about S. by E. half E. You will find the extreme of Indian River called Ays, or Hillborough inlet. From the shoal of Canaveral to within 2 leagues north of this river, the coast is flat and treacherous; it is remarkable on account of the immense number of palm-trees, whence it acquired the name of Palmer de Ays or the 'Palm Grove of Ays,'" (Romans 1797).

Alacrán reef. Latitude 22� 24' N and longitude 89� 42' W. Off the coast of Yucatan state Mexico

Alcazar. Quarter Deck; "that which is above the main-deck, from the main-mast to the stern, is so named," (Garcia Palacio 1988: 160). aft-castle (Pontillo 1975).

Alferez. See Sargento Mayor.

Alguazil del Agua. "[water-bailiff] is the one who guards it, and he gives the rations to the mariners and passengers," (Garcia Palacio 1988:160).

Almiranta. A ship that carries the almirante, the second in command of a fleet. Galleons that served as an Almiranta carried 34 to 36 cannon in 1650 and 40 cannon by 1677 (Serrano Mangas 1985:180).

Almojarifazgo. Tax once collected by the royal treasury for merchandise imported into Spain from other Spanish territories (LHF). In Peru 5% was collected on all goods intended for resale that went through the ports and 2% on all goods cleared through customs (Clayton 1979:51).

Altura. Altitude (of latitude), depth (Pontillo 1975)

Ampolleta. "[sand-glass, hour-glass] is a sand-clock, whereby the mariners steering the ship work equally," (Garcia Palacio 1988:160). There are ones for a half hour, minute, half minute and quarter of a minute, depending upon what is desired.

Ancla. anchor. Each galleon crossing the Atlantic was supposed to have five anclas and several anclotes. The weight of the first ranged from 20 to 28 quintales and that of the second type from 3 to 5 quintales. The total weight for a bajel could reach 120 quintales and 900 to 950 quintales for the Armada (Serrano Mangas 1989:111).

Ancla de fuera. sea anchor.

Ancla de tierra. shore anchor.

Ancla flotante. floating anchor.

Anclote. anchor (kedge).

Andaribel. "[life-line] is a rope that is affixed, when the ship pitches, from the main-mast to the fore-mast, above the main-deck and battle-netting, so that the crew may grasp it and walk from stern to bow," (Garcia Palacio 1988:160).

Anegada. One of the Virgin Islands; it is so low that from the north it is quite invisible. It has a reef which, especially at night, is very dangerous (Anonymous 1820).

Angelotes. "Fat angels," According to Vigon (as cited by Bankston in Garcia Palacio 1988:228-229) "hemispheres of shot welded to two bars that interlocked so as to slide out from one another, thus doubling their nominal length through the action of centrifugal force after leaving the cannon's mouth... these shot were used against another ship's rigging and sails, although they may have been used as anti-personnel on occasion." These have been found in the 1596 wreck of the San Pedro (See Smith 1988: 90).

Anguila. An island situated to the north of San Martin and separated from it by a channel which at its closest is 4 miles wide. Belongs to the English (Anonymous 1820).

Antillas menores de barlovento. The islands from Tobago to Barbuda (Anonymous 1820:67).

Antillas menores de sotavento. The islands between Monserrate and and the Virgin islands (e.g. St. Martin, St. Kitts, etc.), (Anonymous 1820:67).

Apique. See Pique

Armada. Armed fleet of which there were several: Armada del Mar Océano, Armada de la Guarda de la Carrera de Indias, Flota de Nueva España (New Spain Fleet), Armada de Barlovento and Armada del Mar del Sur.

Armada de Barlovento. The fleet responsible for eliminating pirates and smugglers from Caribbean waters (Serrano Mangas 1986:2).

Armada de la Guarda de la Carrera de Indias. Fleet used to guard the ships sailing from South America with a cargo of precious metals. Also known as "Galeones de Tierra Firme" or simply "Galeones" (Serrano Mangas1986:2).

Armada del Mar Océano. Fleet used to defend the Spanish coast (Serrano Mangas1986:2).

Armada del Mar del Sur. Fleet responsible for safeguarding traffic between Peru and Panama (Serrano Mangas1986:2).

Armadillo. Small squadron.

Arcabuz. A cannon, 95 to 195 centimeters long, mounted on a wooden shaft that has been reinforced in the back in order to support the weight of the gunpowder and thus avoid the danger of bursting or overheating (Serrano Mangas 1989:135). In the sixteenth century these were generally matchlocks (See Mosquetes for a larger version of this weapon). In English translation the word is "Harquebus" (LHF).

Arroba. Measurement of weight equivalent to 25 pounds. Assigned a value of 11.50 kilograms (Serrano Mangas 1992).

Aserradores. Island off the coast of the province of Chinandega Nicaragua; latitude 12�36' N, longitude 87� 19' W. "The cape of Azerradores is at the latitude of 12o, 40' N and the longitude of 285o 5'. It is an island whose reefs extend a league into the sea, entering by here, one can go to Realejo," (Anonymous and Various 1767).

Asiento. Exclusive contract for the preparation and dispatch of armadas and flotas. Between 1591 and 1692 this was usually the responsibility of the Seville Consulado (Smith 1940:97-98).

Astillero. Site intended for construction and careening of ships in ports, beaches or channels. Older terms with the same meaning are: tarazana, atarazana, tarazanal and atarazanal.

Astrolabio [Astrolabe]. A metal instrument with which the altitude of the sun is taken (Garcia Palacio 1988:161). Garcia Palacio (1988:40-49) provides instructions and examples on how to use the astrolabe.

Atarazana or Atarazanal. See Astillero.

Averia. All extraordinary expenses required during the voyage for the survival of the ship and or its cargo. For Smith (1940:96) it was a convoy tax, an ad valorem duty on goods carried to and from the Americas. He states that on passengers and slaves it was a head tax of 20 ducats. In Peru 1 or 2 % was collected of the value of the goods carried on the ship (Clayton 1979:51). The proceeds were used to support the warships that protected the merchant ships.

Aviso. A boat, usually small and most often a patache, which goes and comes from America with correspondence or despatches of the State or Government, sometimes to these countries and other times to a squadron or some division. "...By 1578, they were required to be no greater than 60 tons burden. They were supposedly instructed to only transport despatches and the necessary supplies for the troops, but many times they brought ... quicksilver, merchandise and provisions, destined to the ports of call...," (Cardona Bonet 1989:109).

Bahamas. See Canal Nuevo de Bahama and Canal Viejo de Bahama.

Bahia Honda. Latitude 22� 54' N and longitude 83� 10' W, Pinar del Rio province Cuba.

Bajel. One of the general terms used to designate all kinds of shipping, and as a result equivalent to barco, buque, nao, nave, bastimento and vaso. Figuratively one can also say "leño", "pino", "quilla" and "vela". The English equivalent is "vessel." Landlubbers understand it to mean "navio grande," (i.e. large ship). The term is used in early eighteenth century English documents from the Gulf of Honduras (LHF). See Batel.

Bajel quebrantado. broken-backed ship.

Bajio. See Bajo.

Bajo. Shoal. Other terms with the same meaning are: Bajio, Escollo and Abrojo.

Balandra. Small ship with a single mast, spanker sail and various jibs; See Figure 7.

Ballestilla. Cross-staff used to determine the altitude of the North-Star at night, (Garcia Palacio 1988:49). Garcia Palacio (1988: 50-55) provides information on how to manufacture and use this instrument.

Bancos. "[banks, shoals, sand-bars] the heaps of sand that the sea may move about are so called at sea...," (Garcia Palacio 1988:163).

Barca. Generic term for all small shipping intended for fishing, cargo transport and traffic on the coasts, ports and rivers. Therefore in these there are various kinds or forms and rigging, and this is without counting the large and small punts (flat bottomed boats). These last are also known as batel, esquife, lancha, leño, barquicihuelo etc; although in some old documents one sees them called navichuelo. Commonly the ... barca is the ships boat; and at other times the barge or lighter of the port stevedores. .

Barco. See Bajel.

Barcos Luengos. Streamlined open boats of reduced draught that are propelled by oars (Serrano Mangas 1989:70).

Barlovento. weather gage, windward. The direction from which comes the wind. A ship, "in order, to enter into some port, to double a point [of land], or to sail along the coast--the wind scanty and heading, sails to one side and the other, in order to make good the course, and this is sailing to windward," (Garcia Palacio 1988:163).

Barlovento, islands of. According to a decree of 1589 the "islands" of Barlovento consisted of the lesser and greater Antilles, the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Colombia, and Florida. "Islands" means here the lands of the route to the Indies, the New World coast for the ships that traveled the Atlantic between Spain and the Americas. Hence the Barlovento fleet, a term often seen in the old manuscripts, means the ship conveys that traveled between these destinations (LHF). A much more restricted definition was in use by the beginning of the nineteenth century (See Antillas menores de barlovento).

Barquicihuelo. Punt or flat bottomed boat. See Barca.

Barras. Of silver or gold. In a manuscript dated 1624 (AGI Contratacion 2215), silver bars had a weight of 584 to 770.07 pesos. The average weight was 695.79 pesos per bar. A gold bar, in the same manuscript, weighed 40 pesos and 7 tomines (LHF).

Batel. Boat once carried by ships like the launch (lancha) and life boat (bote). Also called esquife although this tends to be used for tiny boats. Also written as equivalent to the navichuelo. Landsmen use as equivalent to bajel, nave, or sucurro. See Barca.

Bergantin. A ship with two large masts and the foremast with its bowsprit, square sails and corresponding jibs etc., the largest sail being a spanker; although some in order to harness strong winds also carry another large square sail. This type of fast ship was first known in the fourteenth century and was called a bregantin. "A small, swift vessel," (Garcia Palacio 1988:163). The English term is "Brig." See also Polacra.

Bergantin-polacra or bergantin de palo tiple [pole mast brigs]. Polacre with two masts, with a lookout station on the larger, and the hull of a bergantin-redondo. Some have sails on the top mast above the cross piece.

Bergantin redondo: The very large redondo carries a small mast at the stern in order to set the spanker which because of its size, would be difficult to manage without it.

Biscayna. Ship originating in the Basque provinces (e.g. Bilbao) of northern Spain. Term often seen in seventeenth century documents.

Bombardeta. Heaviest of wrought-iron breech-loading cannon used in the sixteenth century. "The bore of the tube usually was made of several 'staves', like those of a wooden barrel, which were reinforced by the addition of iron 'sleeves' and thicker 'bands' more-or-less analogous to a barrel's hoops," (Keith 1988:53).

Bongo. A small vessel used in some American ports to load and unload larger ships. Sometimes a cannon was placed in the prow. The term is used in early eighteenth century English documents from the Gulf of Honduras (LHF). Also known as a "Bombo".

Bote. A small vessel, although of various sizes, kept for the use of the commander or person in charge of the establishment. Also they are used by staff of the arsenals, port administrators, for fishing etc. In early times it was called "esquife," "batel," etc. Ships can carry even four of these boats. In every case they use oars. The English term is "boat".

Bote-lancha. A bote with considerable breadth and depth, with which one can attach an kedge-anchor (i.e. small anchor). Many ships carry a bote of this type in place of a lancha.

Braza. Fathom, a measurement of depth, equal to six feet. "Its true depth, or length was not uniform. It depended on the size of the seaman who made the measurement, especially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A sounding lead on a line was lowered and the depth established by the seaman pulling in the line. If he had short arms the fathom could be as little as 5.5 feet; if he had long arms it could be as long as 6.5 feet- the measurement was obtained by measuring the distance between the fingers of his extended arms," (Marx 1987:53-54). See also Toesa.

Brulote. Fire ship. Ships filled with inflammable materials in order to burn enemy ships.

Buque. See Bajel.

Cabordardar. "[To go aground] is to run on to the land because of the weather, or another reason," (Garcia Palacio 1988:167).

Cabrestante. Capstan.

Caja de plata. Wooden box used to ship silver coins or bullion. Commonly, in the eighteenth century, a box held 3,000 pesos (LHF).

Calibre de las Piezas. This refers to the weight of projectile that could be used by a cannon. There were 15 sizes in use in the seventeenth century (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 36, 40) but 10 and 16 pound guns were the most common (Serrano Mangas 1985:201).

Calmedina bajo. A reef just outside of the port of Cartagena (Escalante de Mendoza 1985:175). Sometimes spelt Sal-Medina. "The bajo of Salmedina is 4 leagues from Cartagena and one and a half leagues from its coast... it is a bajo of rocky shelving... and on it was lost a navio of Spain in the year 1680...," (Anonymous and various 1767).

Camara. "[Powder-charge, breech-chamber] is the quantity of powder that [each of] the artillery pieces requires, and in the swivel-guns, falconets, and others, it is removed and replaced," (Garcia Palacio 1988:167).

Canal Nuevo de Bahama. The channel that separates the western portion of the Bahamas from the eastern coast of Florida (Anonymous 1820).

Canal Viejo de Bahama. The channel that separates the Greater Antilles from the Bahamas islands (Anonymous 1820).

Cañón. Half Cañón had a bore of 8 through 28 while full Cañón ranged up to 40.

Cañón medio (half Cañón). The 16 bore gun was a very common gun in the seventeenth century (Serrano Mangas 1989: 133). The Cañón medio had a weight of 34 to 35 quintals.

Cañónetes. Cannon of 12 quintals in weight (Garcia Palacio 1988:196).

Capitan de Mar y Guerra. Beginning in 1607, the commanding officer on the silver galleon for all marines and soldiers (Serrano Mangas 1989:239).

Capitan del Navio. "[Ship's captain] is when it is for merchandise, and if it is for war, he is the one who is named Captain, for the fighting, and he is in charge of the crew and necessary things for subduing the enemy," (Garcia Palacio 1988:141-142, 161).

Capitania. The ship that displays the insignia of the commander-in-chief and in early times referred to as the "Capitana Real". The flagship of the commanding officer of the fleet and the ship, together with the Almiranta, when returning to Europe is most likely to be carrying a large cargo of precious metals. In the middle of the seventeenth century these ships carried 40 cannon and by the end of the century both Capitanias and Almirantas had up to 60 cannon (Serrano Mangas 1985:180-181).

Carabela. Large and narrow ship with three masts, but no lookout stations or landings on the top of their masts. They have a single deck, a prow that comes to a point, a flat stern, and lateen sails. Called a Caravel in English. Pontillo (1975) adds that toward the end of the 15th century Spanish caravelas were often square-rigged on the fore and main mast, with a lateen mizzen.

Carabela de armada. Warship that belongs to the State.

Carabelon. See Bergantin.

Caridad, La. The spare anchor. See also quinta ancla.

Carraca. A type of urca that in past times were often used by the Dutch. Carracas, with two masts were used by the Portuguese in their trade with Brazil and the East Indies; See Urca and Fragata. Pontillo (1975:10) writes that the Carraca, "appearing circa 1470, had 4 masts, a large forecastle projecting out over the stem containing two or more decks, while the after castle was lower and supported a poop and a poop-royal deck."

Castellano. One fiftieth of a Marco of gold (Burgess and Clausen 1976: 35). Polzer, Barnes and Naylor (1977:36) state that it was worth 450 maravedis. The term appears in references to gold cargo as recently as the second half of the eighteenth century.

Catoche, Cabo. "Beginning of the coast [of Yucatan] on the east at a height of 22 degrees," (Mendieta 1578:56-56v).

Cayos de Bah'a Honda, Hueso, Indiano, Largo, Marques, Vacas, V'boras, and Vizca'no. See Florida, Banco y costa de la..

Cayos de los Vivores. See Florida, Banco y costa de la..

Chanduy, bajos of. Latitude 2� 27' S and longitude 80� 40' W. Off the coast of Guayas province Ecuador. Punta de Chanduy is at Latitude 2� 25' S and longitude 80� 40' W.

Chata. American ship with two masts and 60 ton capacity. Also a ship with a flat bottom, shallow draught and ability to hold considerable cargo. Vessels with a keel are used in arsenals to transport heavy cargo from one locality to another. Among sailors they distinguish the different usages by using "chata de alijar " or "alijadora " [lighter] and "chata de tumbar [barge used in careening ships]." They are also called "alzacaballo" or "pasacaballo" [horse ferry] and "ponton" [dredge] according to their functions.

Chalupa. Like a Goleta, in having a deck and two masts, but tiny, a sloop.

Chinchorro. Very small boat with tiny oars and the smaller of those kept aboard a ship. English terms are "Jolly Boat, Wherry, Yawl." Raft made by the Indians on the Pacific coast from two bundles of straw fastened together, that is used for fishing.

Chifle. "...Whistle of silver, or other metal, with which the boastwain commands the ship," (Garcia Palacio 1988:169).

Chinchorro bajo. Latitude 18� 35' N and longitude 87� 22' W. Off the coast of Quintana Roo state Mexico

Chontalpa. Latitude 17� 42' N and longitude 93� 31' W. Portion of Tabasco state Mexico

Chubasco. squall.

Colorados shoals. Latitude 22� 36' N and longitude 84� 20' W. Off Pinar del Rio province Cuba. Otherwise known as Colorados, bajos de los or Colorados, Archipiélago de los.

Condestable. "...The leader and chief of the gunners, and the one who arranges for and has to do with the artillery and munitions," (Garcia Palacio 1988:170; see also page148-149 for more details).

Conserva. "is to go in convoy: two or more ships being in company, and looking out for and waiting on one another," (Garcia Palacio 1988:170).

Contoy. Latitude 21o 30' N and longitude 86o 48' W. Location on the coast of Quintana Roo state Mexico.

Contramaestre. Boatswain. A expert and experienced seaman, superior in rank to most sailors and subordinate to the Piloto. There are several ranks and types of Contramaestre, the general term being "Oficiales de Mar". They were considered by the eighteenth century to be equivalent in rank to non commissioned officers. "One who is charged with examining and surveying the vessel's hull, ropes, moorings, and cargo stowage; giving orders to the mariners; arranging the watch[es]; and as the pilot's lieutenant," (Garcia Palacio 1988:144-145, 170).

Corbeta. A ship much smaller than a fragata but in all other respects identical to one. The English term is Corvette. See Figure 8 for a nineteenth century illustration of this type of vessel.

Corsario. Privateer.

Cuadrante. Quadrant or Sextant. Garcia Palacio (1988:39) provides instructions on how the quadrant was used in the sixteenth century.

Cuartillo. Vellón money mixed with silver, worth a quarter of a real, or eight and a half maraved's (LHF). This was an actual coin.

Cuarto. Spanish copper money worth 4 maraved's of vellón, equivalent to twenty nine thousandth of a peso (LHF).

Culata de Cañón: breech of a gun.

Culebrina. Cannon of 14 and higher calibre. A Culebrina Real was a "32 pounder" and the Doble Culebrina a "48 pounder" gun (Manucy1949). They could weigh 49 quintals (or more). According to Pontillo (1975) the culverin (in English) could throw an eighteen pound ball point blank for seven hundred yards and at extreme range for aboutr 2 miles. At extreme range, however, a shot reaching an enemy ship did little damage.

Culebrina medio (half Culebrina). Of 7 and 10 calibre, these are the most commonly used galleon guns of the seventeenth century (Serrano Mangas 1989: 133). They weighed from 19 to 41 quintals. Pontillo (1975) notes that a demi-culverin (culebrina medio) shot a nine pound ball.

Cureña. Gun carriage.

Derrotero. Book that describes the most notable aspects of a coast or coast and adjacent seas with all the information necessary to facilitate navigation.

Dobla. A gold coin having a value of 2 Escudos (Castán 1978).

Doblon. Gold coin, See Escudo. In English the word is Doubloon.

Serrano Mangas (1992) assigns it a value of two escudos or 6.80 grams, noting that this term is also applied to four escudo (27.20 grams) and eight escudo (54.4 gram) coins.

Ducado. Gold monetary value, in the sixteenth century, equal to 375 maraved's (McDonald and Arnold 1979:xv). Equivalent to 11 reals (Castán 1978). In English the word is Ducat. This is not an actual coin. Equivalent to 37.76 grams (Serrano Mangas 1992).

Ensenada. [inlet, cove] is an inlet and smooth beach where ships are repaired ," (Garcia Palacio 1988:173).

Escollo. See Bajo.

Escondido river. At a "height of 27 and a half degrees and 80 leagues north of the Panuco river," (Escalante de Mendoza 1985:194-195). This would be on the south Texas coast, somewhere near to Padre Island.

Escribano del Navio. "...has charge of the accounting and allotment of the merchandise and freight charges, the salaries of the officers, and of all sorts of expenditures that the ship has to make," (Garcia Palacio 1988:174).

Escudo. Gold coin worth 16 silver pesos of 8 reals each. There are 8 escudos to a Doblon (Burgess and Clausen 1976:170). Eight real (Peso) coins were sometimes known as Escudos de Plata. In Puerto Rico the gold escudo was worth 2 pesos, but only a half peso in the last century (Rosa Martinez 1986:54). Equivalent to 3.40 grams (Serrano Mangas 1992).

Esmeril. Sixteenth century "1/2 pounder" gun (Manucy 1949).

Esquife. Punt or flat bottomed boat. See Barca and Batel.

Estrella, Tomar El Estrella. "To find the altitude, by means of the cross-staff, with the north-star," (Garcia Palacio 1988:173).

Expediente. A file on a single topic, and/or from a single source, in a bundle or legajo. In the seventeenth century, a hole would be cut through the sheets, the information written around the hole, and the Expediente sheets bound together by a ribbon threaded through the hole and tied, like a shoelace, at the end (LHF).

Falconetes. Small Cannon that shot 3 libra balls (Serrano Mangas 1989: 133 says 3 or 4) in the seventeenth century. In the eighteenth century a falconete was considered to be an eighth of a culebrina that shot balls of 2 and a half libras (Murillo 1991). Pontillo (1975:270) notes that in the sixteenth century a falconete was approximately 6 feet long, weighed 410 pounds, had a bore size of about 2 inches in diameter and carried a fourteen ounce ball.

Farol. "... The light that is inserted into the large lantern, so that a guide exists in order that other ships may follow it," (Garcia Palacio 1988:175).

Filibote. A ship with the capacity of 100 tons. The English term is "Flyboat". Some use "Pingue" as an equivalent term. See also "Urca Holandesa."

Florida. This term is used in the sixteenth century to mean any portion of the coast of North America, north and east of Mexico. The area included "Florida" gradually diminished over time, only becoming limited to the modern boundaries of the state of Florida in the nineteenth century (LHF).

Florida, Banco. Term used in reference to the Florida keys and coast. Other terms used for the Florida Keys include "Cayos de los Vivores" and "Martires" (Marx 1979:62). Eighteenth century manuscripts tend to assign individual names to different keys. A derrotero of 1820 (Anonymous 1820) identifies, going from east to west, the following keys: Cayo Marques, Islas de Mangles, Cayo de Hueso, Cayos de Bahia Honda, Cayo de Vacas, Cayo de V'boras, Matacumbé el viejo, Cayo Indiano, Matacumbé el mozo, Cayo Largo, Cayo Vizca'no.

Flota de Nueva España. Warships guarding the convoy bringing precious metals from Mexico to Spain via Havana. Often there were only two, the Capitana y Almiranta (Serrano Mangas1986:2).

Flota de Tierra Firme. Convoy bringing precious metals from South America to Spain via Havana. It was escorted by the Armada de la Guarda de la Carrera de Indias (Serrano Mangas1986:2).

Flota de Torres (1733). Fleet of ships that were blown on shore in the Florida Keys (LHF).

Flota de Ubilla (1715). Fleet of ships that were blown on the shore of Florida just south of Cape Cañaveral (LHF).

Folio. In English "Leaf" or "The piece of paper comprising one page on its front side (recto, obverse) and another on its back (verso, reverse)," (Carter 1991:127). A single sheet of paper, or leaf, that in a bound volume would consist of two pages. The back side is often designated with the abbreviation "v." as in "21v." for the back of Leaf 21.

Fragata. A ship with three square rigged masts, smaller than a navio and distinct from one by only having a battery at the waist. They were merchant and war ships, and in centuries past did not weigh more than two hundred tons. Sometimes called a "Carabela." A late sixteenth century description may be found in Garcia Palacio (1988:116). The English term is frigate; see also Galizabra.

Fragata de Aviso. A fast frigate used for communications (Pontillo 1975).

Gabarra. A large Urca used by the French to transport goods of the Royal Treasury. A type of large ship that is used to load and unload ships inside ports.

Galleon. A large ocean going Bajel that only uses sails; some are warships and others carry freight. The English term is Galleon. They are of the same size as the Jabeque and have an extra projection at the prow and at the stern. Pontillo (1975) notes that it had four masts but was narrower than the Carrack, and had lower castles. It usually had two decks from stem to stern with other decks rising in castles fore and aft. By the middle of the seventeenth century an ordinary galleon carried 26 cannons, Capitanias and Almirantas carried more (Serrano Mangas 1985:180).

Galeones. Term given to the large ships that brought goods to and from Peru.

Galeota. A small galley with sixteen or twenty rowers on each side and only one man at each oar. In English the term is "quarter galley."

Galera. This was a ship with a keel of hundred feet, more or less, low and flat, and a very pointed prow, with a great beak on it and a ram on the stern. They had three lateen sails in in its forecastle two or three cannons of large caliber. Its major means of propulsion was by oar, for which they carried on each side thirty or more oars, each one of which was served by two or more criminals. The English term is Galley.

Galizabra. A type of fragata using fourteen oars, as well as sails, to move through the water (Serrano Mangas 1989:67-69).

Garachine islands. These should be located off the Darien province of Panama. Garachiné bay is at Latitude 8o08' N and Longitude 78o20'W. Garachiné point is at Latitude 8o06'N, Longitude 78o25'W. "From Garachine point to the island of Galera is 5 leagues and in the middle of this is the bajo of San Jose where was the lost the navio San Jose...," (Anonymous and Various 1767).

Gata de Arron�ar. "...Is an iron hook with an eye at he end to which a hawser is affixed, for the end to which a hawser is affixed, for raising the anchor from the sea to the ship with it," (Garcia Palacio 1988:176).

Gobernador del Tercio. Official in charge of all military personnel on the ships of a fleet. In rank he was in fourth place, after the Capitán General and the Almirante of the Armada and the General of the Flota but before the Almirante of the commercial convoy (Serrano Mangas 1989:249).

Goleta. A ship easy to steer and having a low hull, a hundred or more feet in length, two masts and spankers. They also carry top-masts for setting the main top and top-gallant sails in normal weather, and some have a small mast at the stern for setting another spanker. The English term for these ships is "Schooner." See also Polacra and Figure 10.

Granadas. Grenades probably detonated by an exposed, lighted fuse (Bankston in Garcia Palacio 1988:228).

Grano. See Tomin.

Grumete. Novice or beginning seamen. Often refered to as "mozos" or boys (Serrano Mangas 1989:223). "...The youths who attend to all the work and labor in the ship," (Garcia Palacio 1988:176-177).

Guardian de la Nao. "...Is the one who has charge of the long-boat, bringing water, and gives whatever orders to the ship's-boys that are necessary for this," (Garcia Palacio 1988:177).

Harpeo. "...Is an iron grapnel attached to a long, iron chain, which goes below the bowsprit for the length of it as far as the outer end, and with which one ship grapples another, and it is used when they board for fighting," (Garcia Palacio 1988:177).

Itinerario. See Derrotero.

Jabeque. Ship restricted to the Mediterranean, which uses sail and oar, and has three masts of a characteristic shape. In the Fleet a few war Jabeques that used lateen sails and carried up to thirty two cannon (in the early nineteenth century), which had the appearance of a Polacra or Pollacra, were called "jabeques redondos" since they commonly use lateen sails. See also Pingue and Figure 9. The English term is Xabeck.

Lancha. Punt or flat bottomed boat. See Barca.

Lastre. "Is the stone, or other heavy things, that are placed above a ship's keel and floor, so that it may sail upright and, weighted below, not capsize," (Garcia Palacio 1988:179).

Latitud. Latitude, "from [the] end of the fifteenth and well into the nineteenth century, the Spanish and Portuguese divided a degree of latitude into 70 miles of 5,000 feet each, or into 17.5 leagues of 4 miles each. The English and French divided it as we know it today; 60 nautical miles, or 20 leagues of 3 miles each. The Dutch divided it into 60 nautical miles, and 15 leagues of 4 miles each," (Marx 1988).

Legajo. A manuscript bundle, sometimes (as in the AGN of Mexico) bound together as a single volume. The average size is 1000 sheets of paper but this can be vary by 500 or more sheets in either direction. The subdivisions, files on given topics and/or from a common source, are called Expedientes. Material in a single Legajo will tend to be from the same time period, and should be derived from a single agency or location, but the subjects of the different Expedientes can be quite diverse (LHF).

Legua marina or mar'tima. It is the twentieth of the distance between two degrees of latitude. This is 6,650 Castillan varas or three miles in length and serves as the basis of pilot measurements used to estimate distance. The English term is League.

Leño. See Bajel and Barca.

Lingote. Ingot.

Linternas. Bankston (Garcia Palacio 1988:228) suggests that these "were tubes of cloth or leather, filled with stones, nails, musket-balls, and similar items, and then bound with twine, so that they resembled the candle-lanterns then in use. Similar projectiles, using round balls, were later known as 'grape-shot.'"

Lombardo. Iron artillery considered "old" in 1595. They fired 5 or 6 libra balls. In the eighteenth century the term was used to mean "a certain kind of shotgun that was used in the past," (Murillo 1991).

Longitud. In the eighteenth century the French, the Spanish and the English all used different systems for calculating longitude. Thus in MNM Ms. 273, dating from 1791, the French 83o 10 1/4' ("west of Paris") was equal to the English 80o 45' (west of the "Meridian of London") and both were equivalent to the Spanish 292o 58' ("from Tenerife"). The derrotero of 1820 (Anonymous 1820) calculates the meridian from the "old observatory of Cadiz", which was 8o, 37', 45" to the west of Paris and 6o, 17', 30" from Greenwich. This observatory is still at San Fernando in the province of Cadiz Spain (See Figure 1). Pontillo (1975) notes that when the term was used in the sixteenth century it did not refer to the geographical term "longitude" but rather only meant "length."

Longor. Mostly in reference to measure and capacity of a nao from stern to stern above the second covered deck... fifty nine and a half codos being equivalent to two thirds of a vara (Diego Bernal 1586 in Chaunu 1955:1:148),

Lonja. Merchants exchange and headquarters of the Consulado. In Seville the old lonja building was renovated in the eighteenth century as the Archives of the Indies.

Los Abrojos. See Abrojos

Macuquina. Money cut from more or less round silver or gold plate, and stamped with the seal of the Royal Treasury. Its intrinsic value varied, since lacking a serrated edge, it could be clipped; also referred to as "Cut Money" or "Cob" money, from the Spanish "cabo de barra" (it being cut off the "end of the bar").

Maestre de la Nao. "Is in whose charge the accounting for the merchandise and all that is loaded into the ship, and of the freight-charges to the places, is placed," (Garcia Palacio 1988:180,142-143).

Maestre de Raciones y Plata. Official in charge of the food and water on the ship. The same individual, after 1607, was also in charge of the cargo of precious metals (Serrano Mangas 1989:229). He official was responsible for reports on lost and/or salvaged cargo.

Mangla [usually spelt today Manga]. Half the breadth of the said nao, with the said prows, measured from port to starboard above the deck of the hold, twenty codos being equivalent to two thirds of a vara (Diego Bernal 1586 in Chaunu 1955:1:148).

Manglar. It is marshy land on the coast flooded with sea water, where live only the trees that grow in salt water.

Mangles, Islas de. See Florida, Banco y costa de la.

Maravedi. The smallest unit of the monetary system. A silver real was worth 34 maraved's. In the New World a maravedi was only a unit of accounting and not an actual coin .

Maravillas, bajo de. See Mimbres, bajos de

Marco. A measurement used to designate "worked silver" made into artifacts such as church utensils. In eighteenth century documents one marco of silver is equivalent to 8 pesos (LHF). See also Onza. Equivalent to 230.046 grams according to Serrano Mangas (1992).

Margarita, island of. "...In 62 and a half degrees longitude [actually 64] and 11 and three quarters degrees latitude... .There are around it many pearl oyster beds (López de Velasco 1971:72; see also Escalante de Mendoza 1985:127). This island, off the coast of Venezuela, was so important as a source of pearls that by the eighteenth century its name became a synomyn for pearl (Murillo 1991).

Martires. See Florida, Banco y costa de la.

Matacumbé. Two of the Florida Keys. See Florida, Banco y costa de la.

Mejillones, Bah'a. Latitude 23o 03' S and longitude 70o 27' W. On the coast of Antofagasta province, Chile.

Mercante. Pertaining to Ocean going commerce Terms used are "marchante," "mercantil," "merchan," "merchanta" and "merchante." The English term is "Merchant," (as in "Merchant Marine").

Mimbres, bajos of los. Otherwise known as Bimini, they begin at the island of Bimini or Abacoa which is 25 and two thirds degrees on the side of Florida (López de Velasco 1971:65). "Shoals east of Cayo Tumbado and the edge of a nearby sandbank and therefore outside of the channel, today they call it the bajo of Maravillas...," (Anonymous and Various 1767). Museo Naval (Madrid) map 14-B-4 locates the "Placer de los Mimbres" from latitude 23o 15' to 26o (1782). Churruca et al (1750-1816) in 1807 locates the "Mimbres" as from 25o 40' to 25o 20' latitude and from 73o to 72o 40' longitude ("west of of Cadiz"). The bajo of Mimeres of Mendieta (1578:58), given as 26 and a half degrees, may be the same location.

Mosquetes. A 126 centimeter long tube, first used on battlefields in 1567, mounted on a wooden forked pole and ignited with a piece of hemp fiber treated with saltpeter and other chemical in order to burn at a rate of three to five inches per hour. With rotation of a clamp the match made contact with the touchhole, and the weapon was fired (Newton 1990:9; Serrano Mangas 1989:135). In English translation the word is "musket".

Moyana. Sixteenth century "9 pounder" gun (Manucy 1949)

Nao. Marx (1979:10) would use to term to mean a merchant ship with few cannon. Earlier, more contemporary, sources suggest a more general usage, See Bajel.

Nave or Navio. See Bajel.

Nave actuaria. Strong and swift ship [ probably a galley] which in the old fleets played a part equivalent to that of the fragatas.

Navichuelo. Punt or flat bottomed boat. See Barca.

Navio de Alto Bordo. A vessel which has "... high sides, and [is] able to go far to sea," (Garcia Palacio 1988:181).

Navio de puente. "One that has no quarter-deck," (Garcia Palacio 1988:180).

Navio latina. A vessel "that carries triangular sails,"

(Garcia Palacio 1988:180).

Navio redondo. A vessel "...that has square sails," (Garcia Palacio 1988:180).

Nicolao bajo. See Nicolas bajo

Nicolas bajo. This is in Villa Clara province Cuba at latitude 23o15'N, longitude 82o09'W.

North Star. Rules for using in navigation are in Garcia Palacio (1988:55-57).

Oficiales del Mar. See Contramaestre.

Onza. Each one of the eight parts into which is divided a Marco of silver. Each Onza divides into eight Ochavas which in turn are each equivalent to 75 granos (Paula Pérez Sindreu 1991). Equivalent to 28.75 grams (Serrano Mangas 1992).

Paduacan. A Malayan ship of two or three masts and with a square or lateen sail, depending upon its length. It can carry four small cannons to defend it from pirates.

Pajes de Nao. "Boys who serve the ship's crew with any manual labor. They cook the stew, sweep the ship, recite the prayers, sing out the watch, and take care of the hour-glass," (Garcia Palacio 1988:183).

Palmo. Measurement of longitude, a fourth part of a Vara, equivalent to 21 centimeters or (8.26 inches) (Rosa Martinez 1986).

Paquebot o Paquebote. Ship similar to the bergantin, with the difference of not being so easy to handle, and carrying a large round sail, like the frigates and, in place of the spanker, a mizzen bent to the try-mast. Normally used to carry mail, they had disappeared from the Spanish navy by the 1830's. The English term is "packet boat."

Paquete. Name given to the English mail ships in imitation of that used for Spanish ships of this type. The English spelling is "Packet."

Parao. A small ship of the seas of China and the East Indies, with rigging similar to, but not identical to, the Junk.

Pasavolante. Sixteenth century "6 pounder" gun (Manucy 1949).

Patache. Ship with two masts, previously used in warfare, which served in squadrons to carry despatches, reconnoitre the coasts and guard the entrances of ports. Also used in the nineteenth century for a certain kind of ship on the coast of Cantabria similar to a tiny bergantin. The English term is often "Advice boat." See Aviso and Correo. Pontillo (1975) calls it a pinnace.

Patacón. A silver coin worth 8 reals (Burzio 1958:63).

Pedrero. Swivel gun. In the sixteenth century it has a bore of 8 to 14 while the pedreros pequenos shot 4 libra balls, the esmeriles pedreros 3 libra balls and the esmeriles pequenos 2 libra iron balls. Esmeriles pedreros are occasionally noted as being of cast iron. In the eighteenth century a pedrero was a gun that shot stone balls or a great number of tiny balls and an esmeril was considered equivalent to a falconete (Murillo 1991).

Pelotas de puyas. Bankston (in Garcia Palacio 1988:229) notes that these "were an unusual form of round-shot with two spikes extending from opposite sides of the ball. The spikes were for the purpose of sticking in a solid surface and setting that area afire, by means of an incendiary rope wrapped about the spikes." These have been found in the 1596 wreck of the San Pedro (See Smith 1988: 90).

Perulera. Macuquina coins minted in Peru that lacked any uniformity in weight or quality (Burzio 1958:63).

Peso. A peso was supposed to weigh one ounce and according to Serrano Mangas (1992) equivalent to 27.46 grams. When silver this money was either the eight real peso ("piece of eight") or the "peso fuerte" of ten reales in value. While a silver peso existed, the gold peso and the peso fuerte were a way of assigning value rather than actual coins. The term peso fuerte is sometimes used to mean the cast as opposed to the cut 8 peso coin. The cast coin at times could be worth 9 or more of the cut real coins (Burzio 1958:15). In the sixteenth century the high quality gold peso ("de minas") was worth 450 maravedis and the low quality peso ("de Oro Com�n" or "de Tepuzque") was 272 maravedis (McDonald and Arnold 1979:xv). Also in the sixteenth century there was a "Peso de Plata ensayada" that was worth 450 Maravedis (Burzio 1958:12). See also ducado, tomin, real, marco, and toston.

Petempich, Cape. Latitude 20o 55' N and longitude 86o 50' W. Off the coast of Quintana Roo state Mexico

Pie de Cabra. "A common iron bar with two ears at one end, like a hammer, [used] ... to remove nails, spikes, and other things," (Garcia Palacio 1988:182).

Piloto. The person responsible for guiding the ship to its destination. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries this term translates as "ship master" for the person holding this office was in charge of all maritime activities of the ship, the true "governor of the ship." The authority of the ship "Captain of the Sea and War" was strictly limited to the soldiers, with the Piloto in charge of all other ship activities (Serrano Mangas 1989:224; See Garcia Palacio 1988:143-144 for a different definition of the office that makes it third in rank behind the Captain and Master).

Piloto Mayor de la Armada de la Carrera. Responsible not just for the Capitania but also for all the other ships in the convoy, be they warships merchant vessels. All the ship masters of the other vessels were subordinate to him (Serrano Mangas 1989:228).

Piñas. Probably a form of grenade (Bankston in Garcia Palacio 1988:228).

Pingue. In appearance very similar to the "Jabeque," the only difference being very high, having a more level prow and a greater draught. It uses sails and oars and has, in addition to the two main masts that go with lateen yards, a small mizzen-mast at the end of the stern. Also called "Londro" or "Jabeque Latino". Some say the term is equivalent to "Filibote". The word "Pingue" or "Pink" is used in English.

Pino. See Bajel.

Pique. Bottom of the Sea. Echar a pique- to send to the bottom, to sink (Pontillo 1975). As apique, the term can be used as a synonym for shipwreck (LHF).

Plata Sencilla. A mix of both silver half and 2 real coins (Smith 1940:102).

Plata Doble. A mix of both silver 4 and 8 real coins (Burgess and Clausen 1976: 35).

Playa. "An anchorage with little shelter and where there is generally a tumbling sea and contrary winds, and some are called wild coasts because of having more tumbling and being without any protection," (Garcia Palacio 1988:184).

Polacra. Sailing ship with a hull very similar to the Jabeque, having two pole masts, without either top masts nor crosstrees, and with the same sails as the bergantines, although with the advantage over these of having the upper sails at a lower height thus helping to protect the lower sails and and making them easier to furl. Some Goletas have a main mast, and they are called Polacras-Goletas. Some Polacras have three masts. The English term is "Polacre. " See also Bergantin-Polacra

Presa. Enemy shipping surrendered or taken by force. The old term is "prea." The English call it a "Prize."

Puntal. Measuring the depth of a nao which is the height, from the floor timber to the wood below the deck using seventeen codos for two thirds of a vara (Diego Bernal 1586 in Chaunu 1955:1:148).

Quilla. See Bajel.

Quinta ancla or ancla de respeto. spare anchor.

Quintal. Weight of a hundred pounds or of four arrobas. In the metric system equivalent to 100 kilograms. Assigned a value of 46 kilograms by Serrano Mangas (1992).

Ratones. "Rocks in the sea with points and cutting-edges which scrape and gnaw the cables and hawsers by which the ship is anchored," (Garcia Palacio 1988:185).

Real. Silver money having a weight of 3.43 grams (Serrano Mangas 1992). There were 8 reales to a Peso, hence the term "piece of eight" for a Peso. Equivalent to the tomin in the sixteenth century (McDonald and Arnold 1979:xv).

Real de Vellón. Unit of value, two and a half being equivalent to a Real de Plata (Paula Pérez Sindreu 1991).

Realejo. In the jurisdiction of Nicaragua, López de Velasco (1971:164) places it at 91� [sic] of longitude and 11� and a half of latitude, 11 leagues from Leon and 24 legues from Choluteca [Honduras]. The actual location was close to modern Corinto.

Represa. A ship retaken by force after having been captured by the enemy.

Rio de La Hacha. "Sixty leagues and more from Venezuela and thirty from Santa Marta in 71 degrees of longitude and 10 and a half of latitude, on the frontier between the jurisdictions of Venezuela and Santa Marta on the coast of the north sea [Caribbean]," (López de Velasco 1971:77). Today this is the area near Maracaibo.

Rio Lagartos. Latitude 21� 36' N and longitude 88� 10' W. Off the coast of Yucatan state Mexico

Sacres. Cannon of 8 bore. A sacre weighed from 20 to 24 quintals (Garcia Palacio 1988:196 says from 24 to 28 quintals). In the eighteenth century a sacre was considered to be equivalent to a quarter of a culebrina and shot balls of 4 to 6 libras (Murillo 1991). Pontillo (1975) states that in the sixteenth century a "sater weighted about 14,000 pounds, had a 3.5 inch bore, and fired a 5 or 5.5 pound ball point blank for 360 yard."

Sacramento. A Portuguese trading post within what is now the territory of Uruguay, and one end of a significant maritime trade route between the Rio de La Plata region and Brazil. Several wrecks off these coasts were of ships going to, or coming from, Sacramento. After several wars it was annexed by Spain.

Sacres medios (half sacres). 5 borecannon with a weight of 14 to 18 quintals (Garcia Palacio 1988:196).

Samequin. A small Turkish ship used in coastal traffic.

Sargento Mayor. Immediate subordinate of the Gobernador del Tercio and equivalent in rank to the Capitanes de Mar y Guerra (Serrano Mangas 1989:252). Often holds the title of Alferez, being the one in charge of the battle banner and leader of the charge against enemy troops.

Segundo Contra Maestre. Boatswain's mate. "The fifth personage in the ship ... [who] supervises the ship's boys and pages," (Garcia Palacio 1988: 145-148).

Serrana bajo. "A bank which is fourteen and a half degrees and 85 leagues from the the port of Cartagena to the northwest. ...[It] is very dangerous and prejudicial for all those who navigate from the port of Cartagena to the point of San Antonio [Cuba] and thos it is very necessary to very carefully navigate by it in order not to lose ships, lives and treasure in ... [this] place," (Escalante de Mendoza 1985:176). Between Jamaica and Nicaragua, this is still on modern maps as the Serrana Bank.

Serranilla. "Shallows and reefs, some twenty leagues northwest and others southeast of Serrana. Those southeast have a latitude of fifteen and a half degrees and the other to the northwest is sixteen and a half degrees ... " (Escalante de Mendoza 1985:176).

Sal-Medina. See Calmedina bajo

Sibarima bajo. There is a Sibarimar bay close to the city of Havana at latitude 23� 10'N and longitude 82� 09'W.

Sonajas. "Two small pieces of wood, pierced by holes, that serve, with the cross-staff, for taking the altitude," (Garcia Palacio 1988:187).

Southern Cross. Rules for determining the altitude [sic latitude] using these stars are given in Garcia Palacio (1988:58).

Sotavento. The direction opposite from where comes the wind with respect to a point or place. In English the term used is "Lee". See also Antillas menores de sotavento.

Sucurro. See Batel.

Suelto. Ships that sail alone and without a convoy ("sueltos y sin flota").

Tancal. Double-ended bote chico of Macao sculled usually by women.

Taja Relingas. "Iron, with large, curved blades, like sickles, which are nailed to a ship's yard-arms, so that when they board for fighting, the blades take apart and rend the rigging and sails of the enemy," (Garcia Palacio 1988:187-188).

Tarazana or Tarazanal. See Astillero.

Tartana. Boat with a single mast, perpendicular to the keel of the ship, and carrying a lateen sail. Used in the 1620's to recover silver from ships wrecked in the Florida keys and afterwards as despatch ships by the Armadas (Serrano Mangas 1989:64-67). The English term for this type of ship is "Tartan".

Tierra Firme. South America in general but especially the northern coast of South America from Veragua province in what is now Panama to the delta of the Orinoco river of Venezuela (LHF). This is the area sometimes designated as the "Spanish Main," (Pontillo 1975). As originally used in the fifteenth century, by Columbus and his contemporaries, the term was equivalent to "continent."

Toesa. A French measurement of six feet that is equivalent to seven Castellan feet. It often was used interchangably with the term Braza but with the implication of a greater distance.

Tomin. A subdivision of the peso worth 12 granos. Worth 34 maravedis in the sixteenth century, thus being equivalent to the real (McDonald and Arnold 1979:xv). There are eight tomins to the Castellano (Paula Pérez Sindreu 1991).

Tormenta. "A storm at sea. It ordinarily lasts twenty-four hours and is also called a borasco and a boarrete," (Garcia Palacio 1988:189).

Toston. In mid sixteenth century Guatemala, 1 gold peso was equivalent to 3 tostons. Each of these tostons was worth 4 reales. Serrano Mangas (1992) assigns a value to it of 2.5 reals or 8.57 grams.

Universidad de los Mareantes [of Seville]. All seamen, from owners, masters and pilots to common sailers belonged to the Universidad. The Universidad protected seamen engaged in the Indies trade and extended to them certain privileges, among which is freedom from arrest for debt, and it maintained a mariners hospital in Seville (Pontillo 1975:11).

Urcas. A kind of cargo frigate, or constructed with this intention, although many were used as warships. These were originally intended to be used in shallow waters and the interior consists of an enormous empty space without partitions (Serrano Mangas 1989:58).

Urca Holandesa: Shipping from the North, and most especially from Holland; from prow to stern very full or round in its dimensions, and having only one deck, all the rest being storage for cargo. See Filibote.

Vara. Unit of length that divides into 3 feet, or 4 palmos, or 36 pulgadas (Rosa Martinez 1986). Can be translated by the English term "yard" but is not necessarily identical to the standard English yard. In modern Guatemala, as a unit of length, it is equivalent to 4 cuartas or 2.756 feet (Anonymous 1966). Assigned a value of .84 meters (Serrano Mangas 1992).

Vara Castellana. Unit of length equivalent to three feet or four palmos or 36 pulgadas (Rosa Martinez 1986).

Vara Conuquera. Measurement of longitude equivalent to 99 pulgadas (inches), (Rosa Martinez 1986).

Varaderos, Los. In Matanzas province Cuba there is a Veradero (latitude 23� 08 N and longitude 81� 18' W) and Varadero beach (latitude 23� 09N and longitude 81� 16'W).

Vela. See Bajel.

Vellon. Copper coins of low value, sometimes mixed with silver (LHF). See also Cuartillo and Real de Vellon.

Viboras, las. "Seven or eight islands ... surrounded by reefs, to the south of Jamaica at 17 degrees of latitude, and six or seven leagues from the coast," (López de Velasco 1971:63).